Rawls’s A Theory of Justice

Imagine a society where every institution, from the courts to the markets, is built on a foundation that respects the dignity and rights of each individual. This foundation is what we call justice — the first virtue of social institutions. Just as truth is essential to any system of knowledge, justice is essential to the fabric of society. Justice demands that no person's basic liberties be sacrificed for the benefit of others, no matter how great the overall gain. This is a profound departure from the idea that we can trade off the rights of a few for the happiness of many. In fact, it is this very principle that challenges the dominant moral theory of utilitarianism, which holds that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility.

Consider a simple example: if a society could increase its total happiness by restricting the freedoms of a minority group, utilitarianism might justify this restriction. But justice says no. The loss of freedom for some cannot be made right by a greater good shared by others. This inviolability is what preserves the moral integrity of each person and the legitimacy of social institutions. It is the safeguard against tyranny and oppression.

Why is this so important? Because social institutions shape the opportunities and constraints that define our lives. They distribute rights, duties, and benefits, influencing who can participate fully in society and who is marginalized. Justice ensures that these distributions are fair and respect the equal moral worth of all.

This ideal of justice is not merely an abstract ideal; it has practical implications. If we must choose between justice and efficiency, justice must prevail. Efficiency, often measured in economic terms, is important but cannot justify violating fundamental rights. Imagine a society that is economically prosperous but where basic freedoms are denied — such prosperity would be hollow.

In this light, justice is a compass that guides the design and evaluation of social institutions. It helps us navigate complex trade-offs and ensures that the pursuit of collective goals does not trample individual rights. Justice is the lens through which we judge the fairness of social arrangements.

As we embark on this journey through the theory of justice, keep in mind that the central question is: how can we design institutions that are fair to all, especially when our goals and values differ? The answer lies in principles that respect the inviolability of each person and reject sacrificing some for others. This sets the stage for exploring how such principles can be chosen and justified, which we will delve into next.