The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century

Imagine a world tens of thousands of years ago, where our ancestors lived in small groups, hunting and gathering to survive. The closest relatives of humans today—gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos—show us that dominance hierarchies and inequality have deep biological roots. In these primates, the biggest and strongest males dominate access to food and mates, creating a natural pecking order. Yet, humans took a different path. The development of projectile weapons about two million years ago was a pivotal innovation. Unlike close combat, these weapons allowed individuals who were not the strongest to challenge dominants from a distance, making brute strength less decisive. This technological leap, combined with the evolution of language and cooperative social behavior, enabled early humans to form coalitions that balanced power within groups.

But technology alone was not enough. Hunter-gatherer societies developed a moral economy that actively prevented domination. Social sanctions such as ridicule, ostracism, and even violence were used to keep any individual from gaining too much power. This system, known as the 'reverse dominance hierarchy,' ensured that leadership was subtle, dispersed, and temporary. Sharing was the norm, and accumulation of material goods was limited by nomadic lifestyles and social expectations. For example, among the Hadza of Tanzania, possessions are minimal, and hiding food is discouraged. Even though individuals might prefer to keep more for themselves, social norms compel sharing, maintaining a remarkable degree of equality.

These leveling mechanisms created an egalitarian equilibrium that contrasted sharply with the dominance hierarchies seen in other primates. While inequality was not absent—differences in body strength, reproductive success, and social networks existed—the overall distribution of resources was far more balanced. This equilibrium was fragile and required constant social effort to maintain. It was a world defined by cooperation, modest material wealth, and a strong ethos of sharing.

Yet, this egalitarian world was soon to change. The end of the last Ice Age brought climatic stability that allowed humans to produce surpluses through farming and herding, setting the stage for new forms of inequality. But before we explore that transformation, let us reflect on the remarkable social innovations that allowed early humans to resist natural hierarchies and create a more equal society. This foundation shapes much of what follows.

Next, we will journey into the era when food production reshaped human societies and gave rise to the first durable inequalities.